Study of Rail Structure: Risk Analysis and Failure Mode

Study of Rail Structure: Risk Analysis and Failure Mode Study of Rail Structure:  Risk Analysis and Failure Mode Avoidance In this case study, a brief overview of railway structure is discussed. Defects related to rail failure are considered essential to frame out the correct maintenance strategy. As it is closely associated with safety of passenger and cargo transportation, hence it retains high risk in terms of human lives and cost of resources. There will always be some risk associated with collisions and derailments but it can be reduced by eradication of the root causes. Exposure and amendment of rail defects are major issues for all rail companies around the world. There are challenges to the infrastructure maintenance individuals to perform effective inspection and cost effective rectification decisions. If addressed properly these can reduce potential risk of rail breaks and derailments. Risk assessment and Failure mode avoidance has become a vital constraint for the organisations to decide a cost effective and improved solution that could meet the financial constraints regarding inspection, renewal and replacement of rails and wheels. This study aims to reduce costs and risks related to rail operation by effective approaches. The issues and challenges related to rail maintenance are outlined. The maintenance strategy followed by most railway companies is also defined. Large Railways infrastructures are the prime manner of transportation in several countries. Improved and better safety measurements are continuously presented but still could not be considered as incidents proof. There will always be some risk related with derailments and other occurrences such as major disruption to services, which can furthered be minimised by detailed examination of the root causes. Some of the causes require improvement in skill and efficiency, for example human error, and some may be improved by optimization of inspection regularity. Therefore, a appropriate thorough study of the defects which develop both on the rolling stock and rail infrastructure is vital to frame out the correct maintenance approach. European Union spends around à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 2 billion every year for maintenance and repairing of broken rails (European Commission Cordis, 2017). It is understood that the consequential cost due to derailment decreases with rise in inspection, lubrication an d grinding charges. Risk in railways could be expressed in terms of cost, loss of human lives, infrastructure unavailability, traffic delay and environmental impact which may be caused due to derailment of a train carrying hazardous material. In this report, different kinds of rail defects and maintenance procedures followed are  described. Different risk assessment and failure mode avoidance methods and tools have been discussed briefly in this report. Some of the issues and challenges related to rail  maintenance are also addressed with an aim to reduce the total cost and risks associated with rail operations. Rails are longitudinal steel members that accommodate wheel loads and distribute these loads over the sleepers or supports, guiding the train wheels evenly and continuously. It is one of the most important components of the track structure. Usually a flat bottom rail  is used in conventional railway track, which can be separated into 3 parts: rail head, rail web  and rail foot. Many standards are used for rail profiles. (Kumar, 2007) Figure 1 shows the 2 common rail profiles. Figure 1: Flat bottom and Bullhead rail profiles The rails must possess sufficient stiffness so that they can act as beams and transfer the concentrated wheel loads to the spaced sleeper supports without excessive deflection between supports. (Ernest and John, 1994) Due to economic pressure, there is a world-wide trend to increase axle loads, traffic density  and speed to reduce the operating cost and increase the efficiency of railways. Axle loads  around the world have increased in general from 22.5 to 32.5 Tonnes in last ten years (Allen, 1999). This has led to increased rate of defect formation in rails. Some of the common defects are described in the following sections. 4.1. Shelling Shelling is a defect caused by loss of material initiated by subsurface fatigue. Shelling normally takes place at the gauge corner of high rails in curves. An elliptical shell like crack propagates in the subsurface parallel to the rail surface. When these cracks emerge on the surface, they cause the metal to come out from the crack area. It is generally eliminated by grinding. (Kumar, 2007) Figure 2: Shelling caused by Head Checks 4.2. Head Checks In the crown area, the contact stresses are generally low as it has greater profile radius in  comparison to the gauge side of rail. However, high contact stresses are produced on the high rails gauge corner, which usually has curve radius from 1000 to 1500 m. Head  checks are known to occur in tighter ((IHHA, 2001). If head checks are not controlled, they can cause a rail break. Grinding is the most common practice to remove head checks. Severe head checks need rail section replacement. 4.3. Squats Unlike shelling, squats appear in crown area of straight rail sections. They are surface  initiated defects formed by RCF. A squat is formed by two cracks, a leading crack and a  trailing crack. Both these cracks propagate in opposite direction. These defects could be prevented by grinding. (Kumar, 2007) 4.4. Spalling Spalling occurs, when the surface initiated crack development path is intersected by other similar shallow cracks on the rail head area, a shallow chip of rail material falls out. Spalling is more common in cold climates as rail stiffness increases. Figure 3: Gauge Corner Spalling in rails 4.5. Tache Ovale Tache Ovale is a subsurface defect formed around 10-15 mm below the rail head surface (see Figure 4). This is caused by hydrogen accumulation during manufacturing of rail or when poor welding is done in rails. Thermal and residual stresses also contribute to form this defect. Figure 4: Tache Ovale 4.6. Plastic Flow and Tongue Lipping Plastic flow occurs in rail head area, the depth of which may be up to 15 mm. Plastic flow  occurs on the field side of the low rail due to overloading. Tongue lipping is also a form of plastic deformation, but it is initiated by surface cracks. These cracks partially separate a layer of material from the bulk of rail. (IHHA, 2001) 4.7. Bolt Hole Crack Bolt holes appear in the rail web often starting from the fastening point of fishplates. But  these become weak points to resist crack initiation. These cracks have a very high potential to cause rail break and needs urgent replacement. 4.8. Longitudinal Vertical Crack This is a manufacturing defect, which usually appears in the rail web and may extend in rail  head also. If this crack is intersected by some other crack, it may lead to an early rail  fracture. Odds of sudden fracture due to this become predominant in cold climate. Figure 5: Longitudinal vertical crack 4.9. Transverse Crack Transverse crack is mostly developed in the cross-sectional area of defective weld joints. A  welding defect may be due to variation in weld material or rail manufacturing defect. Figure 6 shows a Transverse crack develops from the centre of the rail head or the rail foot. Use of clean steel and deeper hardening of rail head may avoid its formation. (Kumar, 2007) Figure 6: Transverse crack 4.10. Buckling Lateral buckling in rails is a very common defect in which the rail bulges out on its either side  due to expansion. As the temperature rises, longitudinal expansion in rail takes place. 4.11. Corrugation Corrugation is a rail flaw consisting of the wave-like wearing of the rail tread visualized as  peaks and valleys, in other words, it is a periodic irregularity of the rail surface (IHHA, 2001),  see Figure 7. Figure 7: Corrugation in rails Rail corrugations are the result of a damage mechanism, such as wear etc. Rail corrugations do not pose risk of immediate derailment, but they may be responsible for loosening of rail fastenings, ballast deterioration, increase in noise and vibration level leading to passenger discomfort, etc. Two main types of corrugations which generally occur in rails are: Short pitch corrugations Long pitch corrugation Tables below show the percentage and type of defect detection by different rail infrastructure  companies. Railway First Second Third Fourth Rail track (1999/2000) Squats 21.7% Vertical/transverse 20.1% Horizontal/longitudinal 12.5% Bolt holes 9.6% SNCF (1999) Squats 23.4% Internal fatigue 11.5% Shells 8.4% Thermite welds 4.7% HSPC (1999) Thermite welds 31.5% Wheel burns 17.2% Horizontal split webs 13.3% Bolt holes 11.3% NS (1997) Insulated Joints 59.4% Transverse defects 18% Thermite welds 15% Fatigue Failure 5.2% DB (1996) Thermite welds 29% Sudden fracture 18% Fatigue Failure 16% Electric bonds 4.0 % Banverket (1998) Transverse fracture 55.1% Welded joint 32.7% Horizontal defect 6.1% Vertical split 2.0% HH1 (1999) Vertical split heads 34.7% Thermite welds 20.3% Detail fractures 13.1% Bolt holes 12.2% HH2 (1999) Transverse defects 23.6% Thermite welds 15.5% Wheel burns 13.2% Shells 9.6% Table 1: Causes of defective rails (Source: Kumar, 2007) Rail breaks and derailments can cost the rail players in terms of loss of revenue, property, environmental damage or even loss of life. Estimation of these costs and analysis of risks are important in deciding effective maintenance strategies. In simple terms, risk can be defined as the chance or probability of loss, damage or injury. (Reddy, 2004) 5.1. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) FMEA is a step-by-step procedure for systematic evaluation of the severity of potential failure modes in a system. This process was originally developed in the 1960s, to analyse the safety of aircrafts, but has been since applied to several other fields, including nuclear power plants and the military. (Villemeur, 1992-A) Figure 8: Schematic representation of the FMEA. (Source: Villemeur, 1992-A). 5.2. Risk Priority Number (RPN) Risk priority number (RPN) is a methodology for analysing the risk associated with potential  problems identified during (FMEA) (for details refer Reliasoft, 2005). Assigning RPN requires the analysis team to rate each potential problem per three rating scales: Severity Occurrence Detection After the ratings, have been assigned the RPN for each issue is calculated as mentioned below, RPN = Severity x Occurrence x Detection Rail maintenance issues can be broadly classified into: Inspection issues Issues related to rail wear, RCF and rail welding Rectification and replacement issues 6.1. Rail Inspection Issues The effectiveness of rail inspection depends on the efficiency and accuracy of the inspecting  equipment. It also depends on the skill and experience of inspectors. Error in inspection is an important issue and its reduction is a big challenge. This mainly depends on the technological limitations of the inspection equipment and the skill level of the rail inspectors. Figure 9: Rail inspection issues (Source: Kumar, 2007) 6.2. Issues related to Rail Wear, RCF and Rail Welding Figure 11 outlines the rail maintenance issues. The following sections briefly describe some  of these issues. Figure 10: Rail maintenance issues (Source: Kumar, 2007) 6.2.1. Rail Wear Issues Wear occurs due to interaction of rail and wheel. It includes mild and severe wear. Mild wear takes place slowly but severe wear is often much faster. Severe wear is predominant in curves and occurs dry conditions. Lubrication techniques are used to prevent such wears. Four commonly used techniques which are followed for rail-wheel lubrication are: Top of rail lubricators Wheel flange lubricators Wayside lubricators On board lubricators 6.2.2. Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) Issues In the late 1990s RCF accounted for about 60% of defects found by East Japan Railways, while in France (SNCF) and UK (Railtrack) the figures were about 25% and 15%,  respectively. RCF is a major future concern as business demands for higher speed; higher axle loads, higher traffic density and higher tractive forces increase (see Cannon et al, 2003). Rail grinding removes surface metal from the rail head. It is done mainly with intensions to control RCF defects and rail wear. Rail grinding became increasingly recognized for controlling RCF defects from 1980 onwards, prior to that it was mainly focused on corrugation removal. 6.2.3. Rail Welding Issues Small imperfection in welds can cause cracks to initiate. A defect free weld requires skilled  workforce, better weld material along with improved welding techniques and equipment. 6.3. Other Issues affecting Rail Wear, RCF and Rail Welding Risk and cost are analysed by rail infrastructure operators in maintenance decisions. It covers rail lubrication, rail grinding and rail weld. Other important issues are: Rail material Rail traffic density and axle load Track geometry In Conclusion, first a brief overview of rail structure is discussed. Then, diverse range of rail defects and degradation processes have been studied. From the literature analyses done, it is interpreted that there is a need for better ways to monitor and predict rail defects over a period based on operational conditions and maintenance tactics. A good knowledge of risk along with an idea of the methods used for risk analysis is also required. Hence, before improvement of any model or any empirical relationship associated with risk and failure, there should first be a familiarity with risk management tools and failure mode avoidance. This study focuses on some such tools. Also, the issues and challenges related to rail maintenance are discoursed. The aim is to reduce risks related to rail operation that leads to failure mode, by effective decisions associated to rail inspection, grinding, rectifications lubrications, and rail replacements. Some of the challenges in this area include development of cost effective maintenance decisions, reliability and availability of logistics support, which include availability of capable equipment, skilled personnel and availability of rail track. 8.1. References Allen, R., (1999) Finding best practice at the wheel/rail interface, International Railway  Journal, Volume 6, pp. 48-50. European Commission Cordis (2017) AutoScan Rail inspection. Available from: http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/203338_en.html sighted: [February 2017] Cannon, D. F., Edel, K.O., Grassie, S. L. and Sawley, K. (2003) Rail defects: an overview,  Fatigue Fracture of Engineering Materials Structures, Volume 26, October 2003, pp.  865-886. Ernest, T. S. and John, M. W. (1994) Track Geometry and Substructure Management,  Thomas Telfold. IHHA (2001) Guidelines to best practices for heavy haul railway operations: wheel and rail  interface issues, International Heavy Haul Association, May 2001, Virginia, USA. KUMAR, S. (2007). Study of Rail Breaks: Associated Risks and Maintenance Strategies. Lulea Railway Research Center (JVTC)  MIL-STD-1629A, (1980) Military Standard Procedures for Performing a Failure Mode,  Effects and Criticality Analysis, Department of Defence, USA. Available from: http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/risk/e-guidelines/RBDM/html/vol4/Volume4/Toolspec_Rec/FMEA/MIL-STD-1629A.pdf sighted: [February 2017] Reddy, V. (2004) Modelling and Analysis of Rail Grinding Lubrication Strategies for  Controlling Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) and Rail Wear, Master Thesis, Queensland  University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Reliasoft (2005) Examining risk priority numbers in FEMA, Reliability Edge, volume 4,  issue1. Available from: http://www.reliasoft.com/newsletter/2q2003/rpns.htm sighted: [February 2017] VILLEMEUR, Alain (1992-A, 1992-B). Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety Assessment, A: Vol. 1: Methods and Technique. B Vol.2: Assessment, Hardware, Software and Human Factors: John Wiley Sons. 8.2. Figures: Figure 1: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Rail_profile.svg/800px-Rail_profile.svg.png?1487817217791 Figure 2: http://www.ndt.net/article/v07n06/thomas/fig3.jpg Figure 3: http://www.railwayexpertwitness.com/images/inspect9-300.jpg Figure 4: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229632336/figure/fig8/AS:[emailprotected]/Figure-1-Tache-ovale-or-kidney-rail-failure.png Figure 5: http://www.ndt.net/article/0698/schub/fig1.gif Figure 6: http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/imfile/09192.jpg Figure 7: http://railmeasurement.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/corrugation-track1.jpg Figure 8: VILLEMEUR, Alain (1992-A, 1992-B). Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety Assessment, A: Vol. 1: Methods and Technique. B Vol.2: Assessment, Hardware, Software and Human Factors: John Wiley Sons. Figure 9 and 10: KUMAR, S. (2007). Study of Rail Breaks: Associated Risks and Maintenance Strategies. Lulea Railway Research Center (JVTC)

Putting a Stop to Film Piracy Essay

Film piracy is one of the most lucrative forms of intellectual property theft in the United States and in the rest of the world. Movies are illegally copied, reproduced, and mass distributed in different ways such as in replicated DVDs or through the Internet for financial gains. Piracy is an act of stealing and it â€Å"includes the unauthorized copying, distribution, performance or other use of copyrighted materials† such as movies and television shows (Motion Picture Association of America). These practices result to negative impacts on consumers, the film industry, and to the whole economy. No matter how enticing are the reasons why people support pirated movies, film piracy remains to be a punishable crime for it is equal to stealing the properties and hard work of other people. Therefore, people who produce and distribute pirated movies for illegal purposes should face the consequences of their actions. Reasons Why People Engage in this Crime There are several ways how to pirate films. These movies are produced either by recording inside the theater, post-production leaks or leaks from an awards screener, stealing film print, stealing legitimate DVD prior to official date of release, or by ripping a legitimate DVD of any protective code (Treverton 37). These stolen copies of the movies are then burned or replicated in more DVDs or uploaded in the Internet without the consent of their original owners and then sold at cheaper prices or distributed for free. Despite being prohibited by law, film piracy is hard to control because many people instantly benefit from it. The people behind the business earn a lot from pirated movies because they do not have to buy the copyrights of the movies or pay royalties. Despite having lower qualities at times, buying pirated movies appeals to consumers because they can get films for free or for a very cheap price. â€Å"The low prices of pirated films compared with the legal ones make the former very attractive to buyers† (Treverton 31). Consumers who have limited budgets would prefer to buy pirated movies or download illegally from the Internet than to spend the money in cinemas. But these are only temporary benefits and in the bigger picture, film piracy causes more harm than good results. How Film Piracy Harms Pirated movies gain support from those who see them as answers to financial burdens. But many people remain unaware of the how movie piracy actually contributes to the sufferings of the whole country’s economy and film industry. These people do not recognize the importance of not supporting the products of piracy. The economy loses a lot of money annually because of the organized crime of intellectual property theft. Each year, â€Å"motion picture piracy costs the U. S. economy more than $20 billion† and because of the illegal reproduction of films, lesser income is earned by the movies and lesser money is contributed by the movie industry to the country’s economy (Grover and Shields). Piracy is also one of the biggest threats to film and music industry. The whole entertainment industry suffers from this crime. â€Å"The global film industry creates more jobs, more entertainment choices and more opportunities for the creative professions† and because of piracy, lesser opportunities are given to film production because budgets for discovering new talents, artists, directors, and production staffs are limited and restrained by the lack of budget (MPAA). There is a big possibility for the value of film making to decline and maybe even completely crash. Consumers will also suffer then because, aside from getting little for the money they invest in illegal products, they are also contributing to the wealth of people who have not really worked hard for the film. When the movie industry loses money to piracy, the costs produce quality and meaningful films and shows also become more expensive. Punishments and Consequences Piracy equals theft. Therefore, it is important to have laws created to protect the copyrights of films and television shows. â€Å"These laws help safeguard the creative works that support the livelihoods of the 2. 4 million Americans who work† together to create quality films for the entertainment of consumers (MPAA). The enforcement of laws makes copyrighted movies valuable and pirating these products makes them known as stolen properties. Many critics of the anti-piracy law and other laws related to copyright violations believe that the anti-piracy bill has harsh repercussions. Critics of anti-piracy laws believe that the punishments for acts related to piracy are too severe at times because lengthy prison terms and huge fines await those who will be caught involved in movie piracy. â€Å"First-time violators can be sentenced to up to five years in prison if the camcording was committed for financial gain or commercial advantage and fined up to $250,000† (MPAA). Critics say that there should be a limitation for the consequences of reproducing materials such as films. But for the industries that are affected by this crime, they need greater enforcement of laws because their lost sales continue increasing as consumers retain access to free music and movies on the Internet (Grover and Shields). Conclusion Reproducing copyrighted materials such as films are prohibited by laws. Piracy is a form of theft and many people profit a lot from stolen works. It has become a problematic dent in the film industry because movie outfits are hurt by this illegal act. Apprehenders are not easily caught and are not always given their rightful punishments. Purchasing pirated movies or getting them illegally from the Internet may seem like a mild offense for an ordinary person. But if this crime is done in volume, the negative consequences of movie piracy are proven to be detrimental to those who are part of the industry of film making because the act already translates into theft and a violation of another person’s rights. Works Cited Grover, Ronald and Shields, Todd. â€Å"Movie-Piracy Websites Shut Down by Raids. † 30 June 2010. Web. 23. Aug. 2010. Retrieved from < http://www. bloomberg. com/news/2010-06-30/movie-piracy-web-sites-shut-down-in-coordinated-raids-by-u-s-officials. html>. Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). Frequently Asked Questions. 2010. Web. 23 Aug. 2010. Retrieved from < http://www. mpaa. org/contentprotection/faq>. Treverton, Gregory F. â€Å"Chapter Three: The Shape of Counterfeiting and the Example of Film Piracy. † Film Piracy, Organized Crime, and Terrorism. California: RAND Corporation, 2009. Print. Pp. 27- 38.

Essay on Life and Death - 1474 Words

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